Classrooms should be designed to enhance student learning. This may seem self-evident, but for centuries classrooms were designed around how teachers taught (pedagogy) in the hope that good teaching would lead to good learning. Today, though pedagogy is still important to classroom design, our understanding of human cognition allows us to focus our designs on learners' needs.

Before 1980, our understanding of human learning was quite limited; as a result, classroom design focused on teaching as the primary classroom function. In classrooms, teachers possessed the source of knowledge that was to be distributed via pedagogies to each student-learner. Superior pedagogies distributed teachers' knowledge more efficiently to student learners.

Classrooms designed around this knowledge-distribution model reflected and even promoted the goal of simple efficiency through a rigid column-by-row spreadsheet organization, which manifested in a utilitarian attitude toward lighting, seating, and spare interiors. These classrooms appeared to be factories for learning supervised by teachers.

We've come to describe these historical classroom models as teacher-centered because they addressed the needs of the teacher over that of the student. This model dates back to the very beginnings of
education, evidenced in Raphael's The School of Athens in which Aristotle and Plato are the focus not only of the artwork, but of the surrounding students as well. Since the Renaissance, and perhaps since Aristotle's Lyceum ca. 350 B.C., this model has dominated classroom design.

Since 1980, research into how humans learn has changed our focus from teachers to students. We now know learning must build on preexisting knowledge (Piaget, Vygotsky); learning is best when it is learner controlled (Lamon, et al.); and when viewed with deep understanding as its goal, learning requires the learner to apply his knowledge in various contexts (Chi, et al., Chase and Simon). In general, this recent research indicates that while good teaching is still important to successful learning, truly effective learning requires the learner's active participation.

Learner-centered classrooms--those that foster student participation and interaction--may have a profound, positive influence on student learning. What are the characteristics of a learner-centered classroom? The short answer is that a learner-centered classroom is one that facilitates the construction of a bridge between the learner and the subject matter to be learned (Duckworth). It requires the classroom environment to adapt in order to meet the needs of each student over time.

Beyond the obvious pedagogical implications of creating a learner-centered classroom environment, the architectural implications are still not well understood. However, we can begin to develop reasonable goals for such a classroom. Based on our current knowledge about human learning, these goals are:

Integrate the classroom into the overall learning environment. Good classrooms are part of a larger learning community. Classrooms should be configured and located within well-placed buildings to promote before- and-after class interaction, in-class breakout sessions, and exposure to instructors. These in-between or so called "breakout spaces" based on corporate office models are extremely effective in promoting interactions that create an atmosphere of engagement.

Configure the classroom to promote interaction. Seating, teaching stations, and display media should be organized in ways that not only allow for student-to-teacher and student-to-student interactions, but also promote these interactions. The design of classroom spaces should create a comfortable, low-risk atmosphere that encourages the exchange of ideas.

Consider classroom technologies that allow learners to integrate out-of-classroom resources into their learning experience. We learn nearly everything we know outside of the classroom context. Classroom technology, particularly digitally-based media, is a useful and powerful learning tool that provides the learner with opportunities outside of the classroom to review class related materials, thus allowing her to customize her learning experience. Two key ingredients successfully integrate digital technology into the classroom: 1) connectivity via robust data networks between the classroom and other information sources; and 2) strict consideration for good viewing of displayed media within the classroom.

Design classrooms as good places. The temporal nature of the classroom experience has given designers the right to create boring and monotonous classroom environments for too long. Good classrooms are engaging spaces that should be comfortable and interesting. Interior finishes should be not only durable, but delightful too. Good lighting is a must and access to natural light is preferred. Special care must be taken by the designer to control uncomfortable distractions, like mechanical equipment or street noise.

Using these goals, we have developed a learner-centered design approach that allows us to create better learning environments. This new design approach includes the following imperatives:

Set project goals. Before we even put pencil to paper, we team with the institution to develop specific project goals. Invariably goals are based upon the institution's mission as understood from the specific perspective of the project at hand. Defining project goals rarely takes long, but doing so at the beginning of design facilitates the overall process.

Take a wide-angle view. If the building program is the renovation of a single classroom, we still study the relationship of that space within the overall learning community at the campus, quad, and building scales. This approach identifies opportunities for enhancing the overall learning environment beyond the original project space. Taking advantage of these opportunities can profoundly impact the efficacy of the originally targeted classroom.

Focus on relationships. Learning is social. When we promote human contact by creating opportunities for chance meetings, providing spaces in support of classrooms, and being mindful of viewing angles and acoustics, we have supported learning.

Sweat the details. Integrating multimedia technology into classroom spaces, being mindful of viewing angles, and including all the support spaces and accessories that make a good space great take enormous time and study. At the teaching wall of every classroom, space is at a premium; parts of inches are significant. We cannot be successful unless every detail is thoughtfully considered.

Make great places. Now that we know students learn better in spaces that are engaging, have natural light, and are memorable, why would we design more vanilla boxes? When we design learning spaces where students want to spend time and where teachers like to teach, we've not only created better rooms, we've enhanced the learning experience.

We find students, in particular, are often surprised by the difference. After learning we were the architects for a large auditorium renovation, one student provided a one-word critique: "Cool!" The ultimate great review.


Bibliography

Bransford, J. D., A. L. Brown, and R. R. Cocking, eds. How People Learn: Brain, Mind Experience, and School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000.

Chase, W. G., and H. A. Simon. "Perception in Chess." Cognitive Psychology. 1:33-81, 1973.

Chi, M. T. H., P. J. Feltovich, and R. Glaser. "Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices." Cognitive Science. 5: 121-152, 1981.

Lamon, M., D. Caswell, M. Scardamalia, and R. Chandra. "Technologies of Use and Social Interaction in Classroom Knowledge Building Communities." Presentation at the Symposium on Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning: Advancements and Challenges. European Association for Research in Learning and Instruction in Athens, Greece. August 1997.

Oblinger, D., ed. Learning Spaces. E-book. Educause, 2006.

Piaget, J. Success and Understanding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.

Strange, C. C., and J. H. Banning. Educating by Design: Creating Campus Learning Environments that Work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001.

Vygotsky, L. S. Mind in Society: The Development of the Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.